Promoting Positive Behaviour.

http://cecp.air.org/preventionstrategies/prevent.pdf What Administrators Can Do To Promote Positive Student Behavior dministrators know only too well that concern for student misbehavior is not new — although the behavior problems have become more prevalent, violent, and destructive during the past 20 years. In poll after poll, behavior problems, lack of discipline, student safety, and violence in the schools, make the top 10 list of concerns about public education. And these concerns are no longer directed only at middle and high schools. Increasingly, serious discipline problems are affecting elementary schools as well. As many elementary classroom teachers will tell you, they spend an inordinate amount of time and energy managing student misbehavior and conflict — time that could be spent on teaching and learning. A recent survey found that elementary students disrupt the classroom and talk back or disobey teachers more frequently than they did a decade ago (Langdon, 1997). Until recently, practitioners often waited until the behavior became serious enough to warrant referral to special education or other intensive services. Sadly, the teachers and parents of too many of these students see signs of potential difficulty long before the behavior escalates to the point of referral — in some cases, by the end of first grade (Wehby, Dodge, Valente, and others, 1993). Although many young children today participate in early childhood programs designed to prevent future learning problems (e.g., Head Start, Early Start, preschool), elementary school is a child’s first experience with formal schooling. While many children easily adjust to the rules and routines that define the code of conduct in public school classrooms, some students need more support in making this transition. Unfortunately, there has been little support for early intervention when a child shows signs of behavioral difficulties, and in some cases there have been significant barriers. For example, a clause in the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has inadvertently caused some administrators to refrain from discussing and addressing minor behavioral difficulties while others have begun automatically to refer students for the slightest infraction. Administrators are wise to be concerned. The number of referrals continues to increase and the need to prevent many of these troublesome behaviors has never been so great. Fortunately, prevention strategies do exist that enable school communities to redirect misbehavior and reduce the potential for misbehavior early on, before the need for formal discussion arises. This guide describes prevention practices that K-8 school administrators have found to be effective in accelerating school performance, increasing readiness for learning, and reducing problem behaviors. Creating a safe school environment requires, among other things, having in place many preventive measures for children’s behavioral and emotional problems. This guide describes prevention practices that K-8 school administrators have found to be effective in accelerating school performance, increasing readiness for learning, and reducing problem behaviors. While these practices cannot prevent all inappropriate behaviors from occurring — indeed, administrators could implement all of the strategies in this guide and still experience behavioral problems for which they need more intensive strategies — they can help you create a school environment that promotes positive behavior. The information in this guide derives from the work of researchers at six universities who spent the last six years implementing school-based prevention practices. Their focus was on students with — and at risk of developing — emotional and behavioral disorders. Examples of prevention strategies from each of these projects are included throughout this document. Contact information for each project is found at the end of the document. Research-based strategies varied across the districts represented in this guide, but one finding remained constant. First and foremost, administrators are key to making prevention work. Their role is twofold: providing an environment that fosters positive behavior and making available specialized support and services that can interrupt cycles of negative behavior. What Do We Know About Prevention? Effective prevention programs are based on the premise that early response to learning, behavioral, and emotional problems can lead to better outcomes for students. Prevention strategies are built into the school’s foundation as part of the regular school program. They are accessible to all students — not just those students who qualify for special programs such as special education or Title I. Two types of universal prevention approaches fit well at the elementary school level. These are: ••• Classroom and schoolwide structural strategies. Practitioners provide consistent environments in classrooms and throughout the entire school. These approaches are designed to benefit all students by building uniform structure and a positive climate that promotes and supports appropriate behavior. Structural SIDEBAR TEXT: ACTIVITIES FOR TIMELINE Prevention in the Classroom r Positive behavior management. r Social skills instruction. r Academic enrichment. Schoolwide Prevention r Unified discipline approach. r Shared expectations for socially competent behavior. r Academic enrichment. School-Family-Community Linkages r Parent partnerships. r Community services. approaches, both those found within individual classrooms and those that are implemented schoolwide, typically address prevention from a multidimensional perspective that includes behavioral management, social skills instruction, and academic enrichment. ••• School as a pathway to family and community agency partnerships. Although classroom and schoolwide structural strategies provide a stable and positive environment for most students, some students need additional support. Sound prevention strategies at this level establish linkages between the primary aspects of students’ lives: home and family, school and classroom, and community and social service agencies. Family, school, and community agency partnerships can provide temporary assistance that can preempt the need for more intensive interventions. Both types of prevention — working in tandem and on a consistent basis — are necessary. Comprehensive school-based prevention strategies at the elementary level are relatively new. However, in most cases administrators will have some prevention strategies already in place. They can use these structures as building blocks as they work to establish a more comprehensive approach. Prevention strategies can help administrators answer the following questions: ••• What can be done in the classroom? ••• What works schoolwide? ••• How can we support students through school-family partnerships? ••• How can we build community agency linkages? Following are examples of promising strategies in each of these areas. Prevention in the Classroom Administrators know that effective classroom practices — such as good classroom organization, engaging lessons with high rates of student response, positive climates, accommodations to match students’ ability levels, and mild consequences for misbehavior — usually will lead to appropriate behaviors for the majority of students. However, many of today’s students often require additional support. Prevention approaches in classrooms focus on what students need to be successful (Dodge & Bickert, 1996). They extend the practitioner’s reach in helping students before corrective measures are necessary (Henley, 1997). Prevention has two important advantages over corrective, after-the-fact discipline. First, it tends to be cost effective — it is much easier to prevent inappropriate behaviors than it is to correct them. Second, there are no negative consequences for children who behave appropriately. In most classroom and schoolwide prevention approaches, there is an emphasis on: ••• Behavior management systems that teach and reward appropriate behaviors. ••• Social skills instruction as an integral part of the curriculum. ••• Academic enrichment to ensure that students master key knowledge and skills.

Effective Group Work

The approaches to groupwork used on the SPRinG (Social Pedagogic Research into Groupwork) project were developed by collaborative discussions with teachers and the evaluation of their classroom activities by teachers and pupils. The focus was on developing an approach that could be fully integrated into the fabric of the school day. The key messages that emerged were as follows. 1. Ease pupils gently into groupwork In the early stages of working in groups, it may be best for students to work in twos and threes. At KS2, groupwork was found to be most effective when it involved no more than five pupils. Group sizes need to relate to the age and experience of pupils, as well as to the complexity of the task they undertake. 2. Develop a supportive ethos It is worth putting time and effort into developing a supportive ethos. A process of briefing and debriefing at the start and end of lessons is useful, so that pupils can reflect on the skills that they need to improve their collaboration. 3. Recognise that skills are involved Groupwork skills have to be actively developed if students are to communicate effectively through listening, explaining and sharing ideas. ‘We cannot just put children into groups and expect them to work well together.’ ‘Groupwork,’ the researchers found, ‘is unlikely to be successful without a lot of hard work and preparation, and this will need to extend over the course of a school year.’ 4. Organise the classroom Teachers taking part in the project received guidance on classroom-seating arrangements, and characteristics of groups such as their size, composition and stability over time. 5. Address conflicts and assist pupils in resolving their problems Conflicts need to be addressed if they are not to lie below the surface and inhibit learning. Groupwork is a context which brings emotions to the fore. Without opportunities to experience and develop the skills to handle conflict on their own, students are not going to develop the capacity to do this independently of the teacher. 6. Stay on the sidelines Teachers can best support learning by acting as facilitators. Confronted by dependent and passive learners, teachers need to encourage students to: consult books and other sources of information ask other pupils for help and suggestions take greater responsibility for their own ideas and decisions. 7. Integrate groupwork into the fabric of the school day Each class taking part in the research project was expected to undertake at least two one-hour groupwork sessions every week. 8. Ensure that groupwork is adopted by the whole school When teachers work without support from colleagues, the likelihood is that some teachers will not implement groupwork fully. 9. Adapt groupwork to class needs Teachers need to develop the freedom and confidence to take ‘ownership’ of the approach. Adapting grouping strategies for different purposes and tasks is the only way of ensuring that the needs of whatever groups they work with are addressed. This is particularly important when working with pupils who have special needs, or in schools facing challenging circumstances. The teachers involved in the project felt that their own professional skills and confidence had evolved as a result of taking part in the activities. The development of pupil group skills freed staff from many of their ordinary duties, giving them more time ‘to reflect on, and think strategically about, their teaching.’ 10. Teachers need training Teachers need to internalise a variety of skills to do with problem-solving classroom management and personal relationships before they can instigate effective groupwork in their classrooms. The current one-year PGCE course offers insufficient time for trainees to develop these skills. Teacher Jodie Corbett on working with a Year 4/5 class: ‘For a few weeks, I and my two colleagues – a teaching assistant and a learning support assistant – observed the children working. We quickly identified the pupils who saw groupwork as a ‘free ride’ and those who would need support. We tried different combinations of children and, following a few tweaks, we had the groups firmly established. 'Now came the difficult part. We watched and supported groups of children as they argued, shouted and sulked. We were very tempted to split them up, but the researchers said it was important that the children worked through these difficulties with adult support. 'For a long time, all we could ‘see’ was noise and disruption. But after a while we realised that the noise we could hear was actually productive noise. They weren’t arguing or talking about last night’s EastEnders, they were actively engaged with the work.’ Effective Group Work Strategies for the College Classroom Love or hate it, group work can create powerful learning experiences for students. From understanding course content to developing problem solving, teamwork and communication skills, group work is an effective teaching strategy whose lessons may endure well beyond the end of a course. So why is it that so many students (and some faculty) hate it? Although the students may not state their objections verbally, the nonverbal reactions are truly eloquent. They just sit there; only with much urging do they look at those sitting nearby and move minimally in the direction of getting themselves seated as a group. This lack of enthusiasm is at some level a recognition that it is so much easier to sit there and take notes rather than work in a group and take ownership. The resistance also derives from past experiences in groups where not much happened, or where some members did nothing while other did more than their fair share of the work. Often very little happens in groups because students don’t tackle the tasks with much enthusiasm, but group ineffectiveness also may be the product of poorly designed and uninteresting group tasks. This special report features 10 insightful articles from The Teaching Professor that will help you create more effective group learning activities and grading strategies as well as tips for dealing with group members who are “hitchhiking” (getting a free ride from the group) or “overachieving” (dominating the group effort). Here’s a sample of the articles in the report: • Leaders with Incentives: Groups That Performed Better • Dealing with Students Who Hate Working in Groups • Group Work That Inspires Cooperation and Competition • Better Understanding the Group Exam Experience • Use the Power of Groups to Help You Teach • Pairing vs. Small Groups: A Model for Analytical Collaboration In short, Effective Group Work Strategies for the College Classroom will change the way your students think about group work. Maryellen Weimer Editor The Teaching Professor A lthough the use of small groups can provide a welcome change to the regular classroom routine, the results are rarely all positive. Invariably, one or two students in each group, because they are shy or lack self-confidence, are reluctant to share their input. These are often the same students who have to be coaxed to participate in large class discussions. Because of group dynamics, the student who usually emerges as the group leader, either by default or proclamation, is often not sensitive to the need to engage the quieter students in the conversation. As a result, the more outspoken students may unwittingly extinguish the very dialogue that the small group is intended to promote. I have found that paired collaboration consistently produces better results than small group discussions do. Having students engage a question in a one-on-one exchange encourages stronger participation by both parties. Rarely do small groups generate equal contributions to the dialogue or problem solving, while pairing creates an intellectual partnership that encourages teamwork. Paired collaboration can easily be modified to work in a number of disciplines. In my literature classroom, the following model, which I use about once every three weeks, seems to be particularly effective. At the beginning of class, I ask each student to place his or her name on a sheet of paper and to write a question about the work that we will be discussing that day. I then collect all of the questions and redistribute them so that each student has someone else’s question. Students then break into pairs and together formulate a response to one or both of the questions, depending on the time allotted for the exercise. They are required to cite textual evidence in support of their arguments. After a period of time, usually 15 or 20 minutes, each pair reports its findings to the larger group. Even if some of the pairs end up answering similar questions, they rarely have similar answers. And, if by chance each member of the pair has radically different interpretations, they are invited to share their individual responses. The exercise can actually be helpful in illustrating the variety of critical readings that one literary work can engender. And, depending on the direction that discussion takes, it can provide the foundation for discourse on a number of theoretical approaches to the text. Experience has convinced me that the benefits of pairing are numerous. Working together provides an opportunity for problem-solving on a more intimate scale than small groups allow. Students tend to form an alliance as they work together to compare—and share—their interpretations. They are more likely to come to class prepared to engage the reading, as they know that they might be called upon at any time to share their knowledge. Finally, a paired model not only allows quiet students to find—and use—their voices, but it also teaches mutual respect and cooperation. Paired collaboration is a small adjustment to the typical group discussion that can yield big results. Effective Group Work Strategies for the College Classroom. • www.FacultyFocus.com Pairing vs. Small Groups: A Model for Analytical Collaboration By Denise D. Knight I have found that paired collaboration consistently produces better results than small group discussions do S uccessful professionals need to be able to both cooperate and compete. Educational experiences need to help students develop both skills. Attle and Baker, authors of an article on the subject, cite survey data from employers indicating that 80 percent of all employees in America work in teams or groups. But competition continues to be the way to succeed in the global economy. Attle and Baker have developed learning experiences that combine the two. They outline an instructional strategy that brings together “components of cooperative learning with the positive aspects of motivational competition through inter-group competition between collaborative teams” in sport management, the field in which they teach. (p. 79) Specifically, they assign students to groups; within those groups, students participate in a grant development project. The instructors work to make the project as “real-world” as possible. They contact a local organization and find out what that organization might need. The groups then develop grant proposals that seek funding for the project. Each group presents its proposal to a panel, and that panel “funds” the proposal of only one group. The article also contains other examples of courses and content where these faculty members have used this cooperative-competitive model. The authors make a number of important points about activities that combine cooperative and competitive elements. They note that cooperation and competition are neither “inherently good or bad in supporting the learning process how instructors employ these strategies in order to enhance student learning determines their value in preparing welleducated soon-to-be professionals.” (p. 77) They say that the exercises’ design must be undertaken carefully, with the instructor attending to how the groups will be formed, their composition, the dynamics that affect

Vincent (Starry, Starry night) with Van Gogh's paintings

Children vs Adults.

Speaking a second language is an important skill for all people, both young and old. It has long been believed that children are better able to learn a second language. In actuality, it is not that children learn language better than adults, but that adults and children learn language differently. By understanding these differences and making adjustments to the learning process, all people can acquire a second language, no matter their age. Processing Differences There are distinct differences in the way an adult brain processes a foreign language when compared to the brain of a child. Imaging and animation technology to view what parts of the brain adults and children use when learning a second language. What was found is that children use a part of their brain called the "deep motor area." The "deep motor area" of the brain is responsible for processes that are not consciously thought about, like brushing your teeth or getting dressed. For children, processing a new language is second nature. Adults process language in a more active part of the brain, meaning that they think more consciously about language rather than it being intuitive Proficiency Differences One reason that it seems that children acquire a second language quicker than adults is because of the different standards of proficiency between adults and children. Children have a smaller vocabulary and it is easy to learn enough of a second language to communicate their needs. Adults have a much larger vocabulary and think and communicate in more complex ways than children. This means it takes them longer to acquire the ability to communicate effectively in a second language. Although it seems that children learn language quicker than adults, in actuality adults and adolescents have the edge Pronunciation Another reason that the myth persists that children learn second languages easier than adults is because of the child's ability to adapt the proper pronunciation of a language. It is true that the younger a child begins to learn a second language, the better their pronunciation. Adults have a more difficult time adapting the pronunciation of a foreign language, and so sound less competent than a child who has the ability to speak a second language with the proper accent. Aging and Learning Ability Another common misconception is that as people age, their ability to learn new a skill diminishes. In actuality, people do not lose their ability to learn as they age. The only challenges an older learner of a second language faces is the weakening of vision and hearing. The loss of hearing in particular can affect a person's ability to learn a language in the traditional classroom setting. A healthy, older adult is perfectly capable of learning a second language. Learning Methods Because children and adults learn differently and use different parts of their brains to process language, they way they are taught a second language should also differ. Exposing children to a second language at home as well as at school is essential to their learning. Singing songs, reading books and repetition of foreign words are all useful tools in helping a child learn a new language. Older learners, especially those with hearing and vision difficulties, may have difficulties learning in a traditional classroom setting. Working with a group that focuses more on understanding the language rather than perfecting pronunciation, and integrates new concepts into the adults preexisting cognitive structures will help the older learner succeed.

Different types of learners.A History of EFL-

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNERS According to: Age, Needs, Levels, Nationalities, Learning Strategies, Motivational Factors . a) Age a. infants / pre-school b. children / primary c. adolescents / secondary d. late teens / late secondary / young adults e. adults b) Needs a. exams (language / school / university) b. business groups (general / ESP / company requirements / job prospects) c. vocational training (ESP / technical / professional) d. pre-university groups (EAP / study skills) e. general English (hobby / travel / social) f. cultural (TESL / integration into new culture) g. remedial c) Levels a. absolute beginners b. false beginners c. elementary d. pre-intermediate e. intermediate (lower / upper) f. advanced (at this level differing needs become more obvious. It is difficult to pre-judge and teaching tends to follow a series of diagnosis > response cycles, rather than a pre-set syllabus) g. illiterate / impaired (visual / aural / oral) h. mixed levels d) Nationalities a. monolingual b. multilingual c. groups of nationalities whose 2nd official language is English d. mixed cultures e) Learning strategies a. the holistic or natural learner. This is a person who is content to expose him/herself to the language and learn what comes. The student who is relaxed when he/she does not completely understand the language being presented. b. the serialist or analytic learner. This is a person who learns bit by bit and builds it up. The student who is frustrated at being presented with language he/she does not completely understand. Learners are probably a combination of both, depending on the situation. Within these 2 "natural" learning strategies there are several "imposed" strategies: Graded record keeping of lessons Good organization of notes Use of resources (both in and out of the institute) Step-by-step building of skills Vocabulary cards, etc. f) Motivational factors a. instrumental motivation. For survival or a specific need. Most TEFL teaching is to instrumentally-motivated students. b. integrative motivation. For those who want to integrate into a culture. These first 2 terms come from bi-lingual research in Canada and it has been argued that they are not applicable to TEFL students. c. intrinsic motivation. From within the student. His/her own personal goals. d. extrinsic motivation. External motivational factors. Exams, teacher's points, peer pressure, etc. Most students are probably motivated by a combination of c. and d. A SHORT HISTORY OF EFL. 1. INTRODUCTION Although this short history is by definition incomplete, it is a personal attempt to look at those developments in EFL which still affect us today in our classrooms albeit in some cases indirectly. Each section looks at a particular method or train of pedagogical thinking and, after briefly describing its theories of language and teaching, it gives a few examples of activities which have been handed down to the present day classroom. Theories of learning and acquisition will be touched on only briefly, and alternative approaches are mentioned by name only. As this is a personal look at EFL it is heavily influenced by my own opinions and beliefs. One and all are welcome to disagree on any viewpoint put forward. 2. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION a) Development This method came to the fore as modern languages began to be taught alongside the classical languages of Greek and Latin. Scholars believed that the study of these languages was valid as an educational discipline but little else, and therefore other languages were taught as Latin and Greek were. It reached its height in the period between 1880 and 1920 although it still forms the basis of much English teaching in schools throughout the world. It was only when travel possibilities meant that more people needed English for conversational purposes that the method came under criticism. The first phrase books started to appear toward the end of the last century and their publication continued and spread throughout the early decades of this century. Marcel, Prendergast and Gouin all influenced changing attitudes to Grammar Translation and as the IPA (International Phonetic Association) gained in prestige Sweet and others found a platform from which they could attack a method of teaching they saw as out-dated and failing to meet the needs of the times. b) Language The English language was viewed in the same way as the classical languages. Rules, conjugations and parts of speech were the cornerstones and its primary form was written, expressed most eloquently in the literature of the great English authors. Grammar rules could be written out in technically obtuse terminology and long lists of vocabulary should be committed to memory. Many of the problems we have in the classroom today with grammar try to undo age old grammatical myths which were caused by the imposition of a Latin style grammar on the Anglo-Saxon English language. This mix was clearly incompatible, and yet we still hear people tell us that a sentence should not end in a preposition. There was little aural / oral work, as the aim of studying the language was to understand the literature. c) Teaching and Learning The grammar was taught deductively - from rules to examples - and the vocabulary introduced in long word lists which were memorized by rote learning. These lists of structure and vocabulary formed the basis of any syllabus. The methodology was restricted to grammar exercises, translation and dictation. The written essay was the most communicative activity and it must be admitted that it is indeed a lot more communicative than many of the L2 activities that were to follow in the next hundred years. The theory of learning could be best summarized as 'what is taught is learnt.' d) Examples Despite the fact that Grammar Translation has received a century's worth of bad press it is notable how many of its techniques are still applicable to our classrooms today. This is especially true when we consider our students here in the UAE and their educational background. We need to tap into their phenomenal powers of memory which have been honed by years of rote learning both the Quran and numerous other school subjects. The English language's irregular past tenses springs to mind. It is the way we test what has been rote learned that needs to be communicative, not necessarily the learning. Dictation is another example of an activity which has been handed down, although hopefully our dictations bear little resemblance to those of the Grammar Translation Method. However, it is interesting to note that the purpose and aims of a dictation have not changed significantly. Board dictations, picture dictations and article grouping are just three communicative forms of this activity which come to hand quickly. 3. AUDIO LINGUAL & STRUCTURAL SITUATIONAL a) Development These two methods were respectively the American and British continuations of the Direct Method which had taken over from Grammar Translation following the Coleman Report in 1929. The Direct Method was a reaction against Grammar Translation and totally avoided the use of L1. It was strongly linked to the IPA and dealt with phonetics as it emphasized oral communication. It looked at everyday language rather than literature and focused on narratives and question / answer techniques. Its most famous followers were Sauveur and Berlitz whose schools today follow an almost identical methodology using lots of realia and stressing accurate pronunciation. These basic methodological concepts were taken on board by both the Audio Lingual Method (AL) and Structural Situational (SS) schools. The AL started to be used in 1943 as part of the US army training program and remained at the forefront of language teaching until the sixties when Chomsky, Hymes and Austen attacked its language and learning precepts in a way that can only be described as violent. Nevertheless, both methods are still widely used today and many of their beliefs are widely held in the teaching profession. b) Language AL's theory of language was based on the school of American Structuralism which placed form above meaning and showed that the language could be broken down into lists of structural patterns. Within each structural pattern there could be only one paradigmatic element of change which would come from one word class. Interestingly fillers were considered a word class in themselves, and this is probably the only grammatical point I am in agreement with. The European equivalent took their language theory from the works of Firth and Halliday who linked structure to situation and argued that meaning came from context. These beliefs were shared by some of the biggest names in EFL including West, Palmer and Hornby. c) Teaching and Learning In reaction to Grammar Translation these two methods were totally inductive in their approach to teaching grammar. In other words, they let students figure out the rules for themselves from the myriad of examples they were presented with. In fact, it was preferred if the students did not think about grammar at all and the theories clearly stated that no grammar rule should be explicitly stated by the teacher. When we look at some of the EFL rules of today (e.g. some = positive, any = negative and questions), we have to wonder if this was not a very wise approach after all. For methods which refused to teach any explicit grammar rules, it is extraordinary that their syllabuses were grammar based, with the least complex structural patterns coming first and then the order of structure dependent on complexity. These structural patterns were drilled using substitution tables in AL, whereas teachers presented the language in situational contexts before drilling it and giving further related practice - the time worn PPP method. Both methods treated the learners as empty vessels whose heads should be filled with language as a jug would be filled with water and drew heavily on the behaviorists’ learning theories a la Pavlov's dog which Skinner and others had applied to human learning. Personally I am not sure I like the idea of being a jug, although it has been proven that repeated drilling is necessary in the formation of some sounds which require unaccustomed muscle movement (e.g. /r/ and /l/ for Chinese speakers). Repeated mistakes were viewed as worse than sin and teachers were encouraged to correct every false utterance immediately. Errors had to be avoided at all costs. Both methods separated the four skills and determined that they should be learnt in the following order with no exceptions; listening, speaking, reading, writing. Finally, no L1 would be permitted and it was somewhat facetiously assumed that once the learner knew all the patterns they would know the language. d) Examples It is extraordinary that we still use so many activities from these two methods considering their totally uncommunicative nature. The PPP method is still taught in most certificate courses as the ideal to aim for although this tells us more about the courses than the usefulness of PPP. Substitution tables and drilling are both common in classes world-wide and have been well adapted to communicative methodology. Hidden drills are one of the activities I use most frequently and reducing dialogues are another. We have our use of realia and a lot of good pronunciation work for language labs from these methods. All in all a pretty impressive selection. 4. COGNITIVE CODE a) Development This was a train of psychological and linguistic thought and did not actually lead to any one operational method, but it provided significant influences, not least the re-emergence of grammar in the classroom and more emphasis on the guided discovery of rules. The Cognitive Code rejected Behaviorism and put an emphasis on the learning of rules through meaningful practice and creativity. It came to the fore in the 1960's as Chomsky released his early works on first languages and universal grammars. Although it did not have an immediate effect in the classroom, it resulted in a liberation for teachers from the strait jackets of the Audio Lingualism and Structural Situational methods. More than anything else it changed the orientation of teachers and above all their attitude to errors. b) Language Basically following Chomsky, it stated that there are universals which underlie all languages. These are rules which can generate any sentence from a universally common deep structure and each language may use different transformations to get to the surface structure. From a finite set of rules an infinite number of sentences can be created was Chomsky's claim, and it is difficult to find a more convincing grammar today. The effect on the classroom was to take language study into the realms of sentence structure and view it as a system comprised of phonology, grammar and lexis. c) Teaching and Learning We should remember that Chomsky himself said that his work had nothing to offer to language teachers and we were fools if we took it on. Nevertheless, this did not discourage many and teachers jumped at his work on language and theories of learning even though it was not until Krashen that his principles of natural acquisition were applied to L2 learning. Chomsky's theories of learning were in line with the cognitive and mentalist approaches of the time and stressed the importance of learners making sense of things for themselves but with the guidance of a teacher. This reaction to Behaviourism stated that learning was not a habit but required cognitive processing and mental effort. It meant that teachers became more comfortable about showing rules, presenting grammar and allowing students to work out rules in class. Most importantly of all it allowed teachers to treat errors as not only natural but as a positive indication that learning was taking place. d) Examples There are no set examples as such from this period, as the methods which evolved over the next decade or so all drew on the Cognitive Code and I have decided to list the examples under the sections that follow. Enough to say that we still hopefully guide students to discover rules for themselves and continue to use what was then called the guided inductive approach to teaching. 5. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (PHASE I) a) Development This was less a method than a collective change in classroom practice world-wide during the seventies and came as a direct result of the Cognitive Code, especially its linguistic theories. In reality it was to take another decade until the learning and teaching theories of the Cognitive Code made themselves felt in the classroom. The seventies were a decade which saw the emergence of functional and notional syllabuses through the work of the Council of Europe in response to the language needs of the EEC. It was also a decade which saw schools of practice breaking away from mainstream EFL and concentrating on narrower areas of focus. ESP and EAP made their first steps in this period and we saw Silent Way, Suggestopedia and Community Language Learning all rise in the public's attention as they looked for a quick and easy way to learn a language fast. At the academic level it was the decade of research starting in discourse analysis, error analysis, learning vs. acquisition and interlanguage. b) Language Wilkins, van Ek and other European linguists with the Council of Europe were working on theories of meaning which reflected communicative events. Language was now viewed as a communicative force with functional exponents used to express a particular communicative need like offering. Style and register also began to take on importance as more ESP schools opened their doors. Interestingly research at Bristol University, which tracked 120 kids for two years with radio miles found that language development had nothing to do with function but that syntactic structure showed patterns in the learning process. Whether this is as true in L2 as it is in L1 still has to be shown. This did not mean that all the language work of the time was on functions and notions. In fact language theory was rich and eclectic with seminal works from the likes of Widdowson, Hymes, Candlin and others coming out. However, unfortunately this had little to no effect on the EFL classroom until the eighties. c) Teaching and Learning This decade had immense influence on syllabus design but in fact resulted in a step back to the Behaviorist teaching patterns as old structural lists were replaced by functional ones sequenced according to their usefulness and complexity. Now it was these which were drilled and PPP'd to death. There was no real theory of learning involved except that it was assumed that this type of language structuring would be more motivating to all students. A highly dubious claim, but at least they were thinking of the students. The focus of the decade was on language and syllabus not on learning and teaching. d) Examples This decade provided us with a wealth of activities often taken from those approaches away from the mainstream. We have the cuisinnaire rods from Silent Way, the use of background music from Suggestopedia and the recording of students and negotiated syllabus from CLL. These methods died out but their values and attitudes continued. The humanistic element had entered the classroom. 6. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (PHASE II) a) Development The 1980's heralded a real advance in the quality of learning as the methods of the last hundred years gelled together and signalled a decade of innovation, imagination and improved practice. The Natural Approach of Krashen and Tyrell caused huge interest not least because Krashen was probably the best salesman EFL has ever seen. Stevick built on the humanist work of Carl Rogers in the sixties and Skehan started the individual learning strategies ball rolling. It was an exciting decade and one I was grateful to be trained in. b) Language Widdowson's influence started debates on interaction, discourse rules, use (the communicative use of language in natural settings) versus usage (the display language so often used in the classroom), and value versus signification. However, this was a time which focused on teaching and learning far more than on the language itself. c) Teaching and Learning Grammatical syllabuses re-emerged and the task based syllabus was born as well. However, most textbooks were now moving towards a multi-syllabus approach with methodologies concentrating on student interaction, humanistic values, authentic materials - starting the great accuracy versus fluency debate which still rages - and individualisation. Learners began to be viewed as individuals for possibly the first time in the history of EFL and learning theories reflected this with social and emotional factors coming to the fore. Individual learning strategies were looked at in depth and teachers began to question academics on the differences between conscious and unconscious learning as well as learning versus acquisition. Krashen was at the centre of this new found dialogue between those at the chalkface and the academics. He had strong support from teachers but was dismissed by many, especially British, academics for being an unscientific showman. It may well be that the largest contribution Krashen has made to our profession is the advent of the researching professional teacher who set out to disprove those ivory tower professors. The total review of correction in the classroom and how it should be carried out is, in my mind, the most significant contribution that came from the first years of the 1980's. It allowed us as teachers to become aware of the effect our use of a variety of correctional techniques would have on learners and we could, accordingly, adapt and improve those techniques. The final influence that must be mentioned was Munby and his needs analysis approach to syllabus design. Although his book 'Communicative Syllabus Design' was published in 1978, it was during the eighties that it began to be refined into a workable approach especially in ESP. d) Examples There are so many different activities which could be listed here but I will restrict myself to the following handful: the use of correction cards and sheets both individual and class, the use of TPR, authentic reading at low levels and most importantly the idea of the information gap which is now a given in almost every class taught. 7. LEXICAL RE-EMERGENCE & LEARNER INDEPENDENCE a) Development Vocabulary had been almost completely ignored since the 1930's and Grammar Translation. A very slow re-emergence could have been seen since as early as 1964 when Halliday said that the most crucial criteria of any register was to be found in its lexis, but then vocabulary was swallowed under the blanket of functional exponents. From 1985 onwards we saw vocabulary re-emerge to its rightful place alongside grammar and phonology and this culminated in the publication of the Lexical Syllabus and COBUILD. In the classroom the focus has been on making students better learners and LRCs (Learning Resource Centres) and ILCs (Independent Learning Centres) have become part of our educational language. b) Language Vocabulary is viewed as central to communicative effectiveness - something that is definitely difficult to argue with. As a whole language is seen as a mix of generative rules and fixed patterns. The language of structure (pre-packed chunks) is learnt one way as vocabulary whereas the language of rules (e.g. sentence formation) is learnt cognitively. This is borne out by a number of studies including one which saw a class taught the present perfect as a series of set phrases. It was not until upper intermediate level that this tense was looked at as a tense. The production of the students from the control group was both more accurate and fluent than that of students from other groups. c) Teaching and Learning Grammar teaching was seen more as a consciousness-raising exercise and we moved thankfully away from phrases such as; 'They've learnt the past continuous.' Variety was the buzz word, and choice and appropriacy of the methodology to the learning context were foremost in teachers' minds. Teachers became researchers in their own right and principled eclecticism in teaching methods allowed learning to be viewed in the same eclectic manner. Students were given space to organise their own learning and the classroom came to be seen as a primer to language acquisition. The work started by Skehan moved on and teachers were seen more as learning facilitators than language judges, and students were required to take responsibility for their own learning as well as being seen as active portrayers of information. d) Examples The best examples from this period are all still available around us in published form, the most noteworthy being Ruth Gairns 'Working with Words'. Vocabulary grids for nuances of meaning is one activity I use frequently, the classroom management strategy of moving pairs and simulation also come from the late eighties. Exercises on learning strategies and study skills abound and most of them are workable. 8. THE NINETIES & INTO THE 21ST CENTURY a) Development We are now in the enviable position of putting everything that has gone before into our own workable unit and combining it with the remarkable development in educational learning tools we have seen in the last few years. We can take from anywhere, use anything and give our students choices that were not possible in earlier teaching climates. Combine this with the latest technology and, if we remain open-minded, we can move positively into a new century which could well see teachers becoming free agents and educational institutions becoming monoliths of the past. b) Language We now recognise that there are probably hundreds of grammars in the world. There is no right or wrong grammar, just different ones. Our job is to break the language down for our students in the way which we understand it and in such a way that they can grasp it. We can now accept that each student will construct their own grammar and it is for us to check this through their interlanguage and help them to adjust it accordingly. The study of language has moved far beyond the sentence, or even paragraph, stage and we need to access the viability of much of the work being done at a discourse level and decide how it can benefit our students. We need no longer back away from dealing with language at a textual level even with low level students. c) Teaching and Learning It is now widely accepted that each context and / or learner needs its own methodology. We have to be flexible and able to change to suit the needs of our students in whatever way necessary. This can be problematic as our role both in and out of the classroom is constantly being redefined. The modern EFL teacher has become a researcher, publisher and innovator. Some students feel frustrated when presented with something they do not completely understand while others are very relaxed about it. We have to keep both types of student motivated and learning in a conducive environment. How? I believe that questions like this and the answers are available in the history of EFL. Rutherford captures the essence nicely as he suggests that teachers should never assume they have taught anything. All teachers do is make students aware of something which the student will later learn if they want to. To this end it is the enjoyment of the process of learning and acquisition, and motivation which are paramount. d) Examples From a teacher's viewpoint I think the approach which has most influenced me in the last five years is Test - Teach - Test, as well as negotiating syllabus and materials with students and using long and high level texts in class. Much of my own recent work has been on the importance of the classroom environment and creating a learning atmosphere which does not threaten students. I drew heavily on the work of people like Rinvolucri, Richards and van Lier to name just three. This is one example where I became innovator, researcher and then author. All of you reading these have the same possibilities, and I would encourage you to find an area you enjoy working

Frank Smith-Stephen Krashen, Writing.

Writing and competence: Smith and Krashen
Frank Smith uno de los psicolingüistas de la escritura y la lectura mas importante
Se enfatiza en la importancia de la escritura para la cultura y se expone desde la óptica de los autores, el concepto de competencia de la lectura para la escritura.
. Este trabajo forma parte de una serie de artículos disertativos en el marco de la tesis doctoral sobre,
"El uso de códigos escritos de lenguaje oralizado de carácter descriptivo, y lenguaje escrito de carácter analítico, y su relación con la comprensión lectora y los componentes gramaticales y sintácticos".
El lenguaje escrito:
En algunos métodos de enseñanza de la escritura se ha presentado el lenguaje escrito corno un sistema de signos que sirve para transcribir el lenguaje oral, como un medio para vehicular mediante letras la lengua oral.
Sin embargo, como lo señala Cassany (1994), Smith, (1994) Krashen (1991) no se trata de un simple sistema de transcripción. sino que constituye un lenguaje completo e independiente, un verdadero medio de comunicación.
Cassany (1994) expone que al consultar los manuales de redacción y los libros de ejercicios que tienen como objetivo enseñar a escribir, se puede concluir que las explicaciones y los ejercicios que presentan la mayoría de ellos se pueden agrupar según los conocimientos gramaticales, reduciendo el uso del lenguaje a la ortografía y algunas reglas de morfosintaxis.
Sin embargo, los estudios de lingüística textual o de gramática del discurso han modificado notablemente este planteamiento.
"Según éstos, cuando hablamos o escribimos (y también cuando escuchamos o leemos) construimos textos y, para hacerlo, tenemos que dominar muchas más habilidades: _discriminar las informaciones relevantes de las irrelevantes,
_estructurarlas en un orden cronológico y comprensible,
_escoger las palabras adecuadas. (por ejemplo, ¿tu’ o usted?; ¿hacer o realizar?; ¿joder, molestar o perturbar?),
_conectar las frases entre sí,
_ construir un párrafo, etc.
Las reglas fonéticas y ortográficas, morfosintácticas y léxicas que permiten formar oraciones aceptables, sólo son una parte del conjunto de conocimientos que domina el usuario de la lengua.
La otra parte es la formada por las reglas que permiten elaborar textos: las reglas de adecuación, coherencia y cohesión". (p.28)

Según el autor, la naturaleza del lenguaje escrito se esclarece cuando se compara éste con el lenguaje oral(4) .
*Por ejemplo, se puede comprobar que la comunicación oral es inmediata en el tiempo (el receptor comprende el mensaje al mismo tiempo que lo dice el emisor),
mientras que la escrita es diferida (el lector tarda bastante hasta que lee el escrito que ha hecho el autor).
Este primer tipo de características se denominan "contextuales", porque se refieren al contexto (espacio, sitio, tiempo, relación entre los interlocutores, etc.) de la comunicación.
En segundo lugar, se puede comparar las características gramaticales (adecuación, coherencia, etc.) de los textos orales y de los escritos.
"Por ejemplo, podemos comparar las estructuras sintácticas que se utilizan en cada código: las que se usan y las que no, su grado de complejidad, la longitud, el orden de las palabras, etc.
Este segundo grupo de características las denominamos textuales, porque hacen referencia al mensaje (el texto) de la comunicación.
En relación a las características contextuales, lo primero que hay que decir es que no existen situaciones de comunicación exclusivas del código oral y del escrito".( Cassany,1994; p.34).

Ong (1994) y Martín (1996) son del mismo parecer. Según ellos, la escritura establece lo que se ha llamado un lenguaje"libre de contextos" o autónomo, que no puede ponerse en duda ni cuestionarse directamente porque el discurso escrito está separado de su autor.
La escritura es una tecnología no solo en cuanto es un recurso externo, sino también en razón de que produce transformaciones interiores de la conciencia y afectan la palabra.
La principal característica es que aunque carezcan del sonido quedan aisladas del contexto más pleno en el cual las palabras toman vida, lo cual trae como consecuencia que en la escritura el significado se concentra en la lengua misma a diferencia de la oralidad en la cual el significado está relacionado al contexto.
La escritura es una tecnología no solo en cuanto es un recurso externo, sino también en razón de que produce transformaciones interiores de la conciencia y afectan la palabra.
Para Smith (1994b), las diferencias entre los dos lenguajes, son similares a las planteadas anteriormente.
Para el autor, no es difícil detectar que un hablante lee desde un texto preparado para la publicación o identifica un pasaje que nosotros leemos de una transcripción realizada de una de una charla.
En este caso, el discurso y la transcripción no son dos idiomas diferentes: ellos comparten un vocabulario y las mismas formas gramaticales, pero tienen también convenciones diferentes para usar vocabulario y gramática.
El lenguaje escrito y el lenguaje oral, se usan generalmente para propósitos diferentes y están dirigidos a auditorios diferentes.
El vocabulario y gramática del lenguaje hablado es posible variarlo dependiendo del propósito, la velocidad y las relaciones que establecen entre la gente. El lenguaje escrito aún se desplace del habla común a formas mas sofisticadas mantiene unas normas sintácticas que lo hacen comprensible al lector
"…suggest, however, that written language is different from spoken the good reason that spoken language has adapted itself to being head but written language is more appropriately read. Written language is not made more comprehensible by being translated into speech even into the supposed speech of the reader" (Smith, 1994)
Por qué escribir
Smith (1994a), considera que responder esta pregunta exige analizar los diversos aspectos, cada faceta de la vida privada y social, así mismo las funciones de la palabra escrita en la religión, derecho, gobierno, política, industria, comercio, educación, arte, y diversión, en las relaciones formales e informales entre la gente, los mecanismos para organizar, informar, instruir, persuadir, excitar, divertir, tranquilizar, y de otra manera controlar, influir en los individuos. La escritura influye en cada parte de nuestras vidas. Socialmente la escritura marca diferencias pues quien no sabe escribir es considerado como poseedor de una insuficiencia, un ultraje social. Por tales razones, por décadas, leer y escribir ha sido un punto central en la política de educación y en la investigación educativa.
Para el autor, ¿La pregunta «Por qué escribir?» puede interpretarse como un examen en la utilidad de la escritura en el idioma y la cultura o en nuestras interacciones cotidianas. ¿Puedo escribir también? «¿Cual es el uso que le da el individuo?». La escritura tiene una gran diversidad de usos asociados a un conocimiento profundo y reflexivo de la cultura. Pero la escritura no es sólo un instrumento utilitario una tecnología como la denomina Ong (1994), su uso introduce profundos cambios cognitivos que pueden ser transferidos a otra cultura.
¿Por qué escribir?
Para Smith (1994a; 7), el axioma básico de la escritura es que quien la ha adquirido ha obtenido una ganancia a emplear en cualquier cultura. Significa esto que los aspectos sintácticos y gramaticales que se asocian al uso de la escritura de una lengua se transfieren a otra lengua. En efecto como señala Krashen (1991), la competencia que poseemos cuando aprendemos a escribir en una lengua se constituye en competencia para escribir en una segunda lengua. La adquisición de la segunda lengua es un proceso inconsciente al igual que lo fue en la primera.
Según el autor, muchas culturas han desarrollado sistemas escritos propios o han adoptado sistemas escritos de otras culturas, pero no hay registro de alguna cultura que haya permitido que la escritura caiga en desuso pues en general se considera&127o útil. Para ello hay tres razones para esta determinación, la posibilidad de comunicarme sin necesidad de que el interlocutor me escuche, guardar información independientemente del tiempo y el espacio donde me hallo y crear productos artísticos.
En palabras de Smith tenemos que:
" The first reason for the persistence of writing is its evident utility as a tool for communication it conveys information over time and space in a way not open to speech. You are probably reading these words many months after I wrote them and probably many miles from where I wrote them. It would be far less convenient for both of us if you had to listen to me talking about writing. The second general utility of writing is to provide a more or less permanent record, ranging from the accounts in a bookkeeper’s ledger to histories and laws whose purpose is not so much to communicate as to institutionalize: All that some cultures have left of their existence is some written records and a few other artifacts. And the third cultural value of writing is as art, the product of creativity: novels, poems, plays. The fact that writing, wherever it has existed, seems to have participated in these three general roles demonstrates its broad utility to cultures"(6) .

Frente a esta visión optimista de la escritura se puede pensar que los nuevos cambios tecnológicos pueden hacer obsoleta este instrumento, sin embargo el autor, considera que aunque puedan haber sustitutos importantes y eficientes como el computador y las tecnologías de oralidad secundaria: radio, fax, programas de reconocimiento de voz (Type voice (7) ) estas no tienen las características del código escrito ni lo suplen, al igual que la fotografía no sustituye la pintura.
"I do not agree with the view that writing will become redundant in our own culture because other technologies are taking its place. 1 cannot imagine any technology making writing obsolete, in the sense of providing a complete alternative to writing. Technologies may sometimes offer acceptable substitutes-they may occasionally be more efficient than writing, occasionally less-but they are not the same; they do not do what writing does in the way writing does it. Therefore they cannot wholly take the place of writing, any more than photography can take the place of the painter’s art (though photography introduces new possibilities for art) Consider the technological alternatives that are commonly proposed for writing, the telephone or radio and television, and their more permanent forms, recording and film" (8 ) (p.7).

La competencia es el acerbo de conocimientos abstractos de la lengua. En la actuación, el escritor experto, tiene la capacidad para poner el conocimiento abstracto en el acto de escribir.
Algunas tecnologías de "oralidad secundaria"(9) pueden hacer posible la comunicación y evitar el uso de la escritura, sin embargo, su utilidad se restringe al momento en le cual se habla, la comunicación telefónica al igual que la del radio es fugaz, se hace etérea en segundos, se vaporiza. En términos textuales, el discurso de estos medios es generalmente situacional, predicativo, informal, con escaso uso de la sintaxis formal, lo cual no trae muchos beneficio para el conocimiento del idioma.
"Apart from the fact that the telephone (or radio) can overcome barriers of space, the telephone has the same disadvantages as spoken language; it utility is restricted to the moment it is uttered. A telephone cali cannot take the place of a book or even a letter as a means of communication across time, as a record, or as a work of art"(10) . (p.8)
Las grabadoras al igual que el video pueden superar las limitaciones temporales al reproducirse una y otra vez lo grabado, pero no es posible hacer una modificación de emisión del tiempo del discurso, su reproducción, o realizar lecturas intertextuales e itinerantes como lo hace el lector cuando lee un libro, regresar con rapidez sobre una frase o sobre una idea.. Así mismo fijar la atención sobre aspectos sintácticos, frases so pena de realizar un ejercicio dispendioso de repeticiones. Por ello generalmente cuando se requiere reflexionar sobre lo dicho en una grabación se requiere realizar una transcripción pues en la oralidad, el pensamiento es contingente al acto de hablar y en la escritura subsecuente al mismo.
"Recordings can only overcome constraints of time in a limited way, taking a spoken language event out of one particular moment of time, the moment it is produced, so that it can be heard and repeated at other times. But listeners to a recording do not have the power to manipulate time that readers have: they cannot skip, hurry ahead, or go back and review, at least not with the facility of a reader. You could not ask meto repeat a sentence I produced five minutes ago if you were listening tome talk, nor could you so easily find that sentence on a tape recording or even a computer disk Certainly you could not ask me to tell’ you in advance the sentence might produce five minutes from now, although you can easily look forward in a letter or a book Nor could you attend to either of those sentences at your own pace, as slowly or as rapidly as you might wish, as you can with a written text. Even in ways that might seem trivial-though they are not writing often." (11) ( Smith,1994a;pág 8)

La lectura como competencia
Para Smith (1994a), la mayoría de las palabras útiles de nuestro idioma escritura tienen significados múltiples. La palabra tiene más de una función gramatical, su posición en la frase es el producto del acto de escribir. Cuando se usa, la palabra escribir (Writing) como un verbo puede tener dos tipos diferentes de significados:
Algunas personas podrían sostener que escribir es emitir las palabras al mismo tiempo, aunque que se haga cosas diferentes.
Un escritor que dicta a una secretaria o en un magnetófono podría sostener que está escribiendo un libro sin realizar una marca sobre el papel. El secretario o la persona que hace la transcripción también podría reclamar que está escribiendo las mismas palabras, por desempeñar un acto convencional con una pluma, lápiz, máquina de escribir, o procesador de texto. Y aunque podríamos decir que se realiza el mismo acto en el idioma se establece una diferencia: el autor compone las palabras y que el secretario las copian.
Cuando se transcribe, la atención se centra en la puntuación; en la selección de palabras. (Spelling (12) ), en la capitalización, en la construcción de los párrafos, en la legibilidad, cuando se compone el énfasis está en la producción de ideas, en la selección de las palabras y en la gramática. El secretario puede jugar un activo papel en la composición, enmendando la gramática y quizás introduciendo nuevas ideas.
"Furthermore, the author and secretary may not be limited to just one interaction with the same piece of writing, there may be editing when the author reviews the text to make changes to some of the secretary’s concerns, to the spelling or punctuation, or to the actual composition. The secretary may make a «clean» copy that introduces further changes to the text. In very general terms, however, it is possible to distinguish the responsibilities of composer and transcriber as they collaborate to produce a single piece of writing in the noun sense".(13) (Smith, 1994a,20)

Sin embargo, cuando se escribe se realiza estos dos roles simultáneamente: El del autor y el de secretario que transcribe
Es necesario ser capaz de encontrar palabras, o puntuar, asignar ideas y organizar, todo esto provisto de los recursos que permitan llevar a cabo la tarea. Sin embargo, para la mayoría de nosotros, además del tiempo, no podemos llevar a cabo ambos papeles concurrentemente.
Como señala Smith (1994), cuando dos de individuos emprenden estas actividades complementarias se facilitan el uno al otro. Cada una de las tareas pueden hacerse mejor porque hay una responsabilidad distribuida. El escritor o autor no tiene que preocuparse por la gramática de las palabras o la prolijidad, y el secretario no tiene la molestia de estar pensando en la producción de ideas. Cuando los dos aspectos son hechos por la misma persona a la vez, estos roles pueden inmiscuirse el uno al otro.
Según esta perspectiva, la escritura es difícil por cualquier razón, cuando pugnamos con las ideas o las palabras, cuando nosotros no estamos seguros de deletrear o hay ansiedad por la producción de ideas en el acto de escribir, la composición y la transcripción se interfieren.
"The problem is basically one of competition for attention. If we are struggling for ideas, or for particular words or constructions, or if our thoughts are coming too fast, then the quality of our handwriting or typing, our spelling or punctuation is likely to decline. If we concentrate on the transcription or clearance of what we write, on the other hand, then composition will be affected… (14) "(p. 20-21)

¿Pero cómo se adquieren estas competencias?
Según Krashen (1991), los resultados de las investigaciones parecen apoyar diferentes y contradictorias hipótesis. Algunas evidencias indican que la personalidad, la lectura motivada está relacionada con el escribir, así mismo, la frecuencia de escritura relaciona con escribir adecuadamente. Otros estudios muestran que si bien hay aspectos de la habilidad de la escritura que pueden deliberadamente enseñarse, el estudio formal de gramática no contribuye significativamente para escribir, y que los escritores buenos y pobres tienen diferentes procesos de composición e intereses. Sin embargo, es posible interpretar estas investigaciones en apoyo de una teoría coherente simple. En teoría desde Chomsky en el año de 1965, se ha separado la competencia del acto de escribir (competence and performance).
La competencia es el acerbo de conocimientos abstractos de la lengua. En la actuación, el escritor experto, tiene la capacidad para poner el conocimiento abstracto en el acto de escribir.
La competencia para escribir, se supone estar asociada al interés por la lectura. se adquiere inconscientemente, pues los lectores son inconscientes de que han adquirido ésta competencia mientras ellos leen (15), y son inconscientes de esta realización después de la adquisición que ha tenido lugar. El escritor percibe con la mirada la textura del texto y sus características.
Autores como Flower and Hayes (1980, citado por Krashen, 1991; 20) señalan que los escritores buenos tienen un gran bagaje de conocimientos tácitos acerca de aspectos convencionales o formales del lenguaje escrito, la prosa y son capaces de organizar y expresar sus ideas. Esto es una evidencia de como la lectura extensiva afecta la capacidad de una persona para escribir. El lector asiduo simplemente tiene un conjunto más grande y más rico de imágenes que las que los textos que mira le ofrecen.
Krashen en su libro "Writing: research, theory and application", sostiene que las convenciones de la escritura se adquieren leyendo.
Así tenemos que para escribir como se escribe en los periódicos, se debe leer periódicos, pues no basta la lectura de los libros. Si se quiere tener competencia en la escritura empleada por las revistas el autor considera que se debe examinar las revistas y no realizar cursos de correspondencia en los cuales se enseña como escribir en una revista. Para escribir poesía, leer poesía. Para lograr un estilo convencional de memorándums en la escuela, consultar el archivo de la escuela.
Las investigaciones señalan que nosotros aprendemos a escribir leyendo. Siendo precisos, se adquiere a escribir con estilo el idioma, leyendo.
Con ésta hipótesis no se puede predecir una correlación perfecta entre la cantidad de placer de quien lee y la calidad de la escritura. Se sostiene aquí que los escritores buenos habrán obtenido cantidades grandes de placer leyendo. La conclusión es simple:
«the more reading, the better writing». (Krashen,1991;21). Esto significa que el buen escritor posee un mínimo de lecturas realizadas, un acerbo de conocimientos adquiridos de manera inconsciente en la lectura..
No obstante, según Krashen (1991,1992), la hipótesis de lectura no distingue entre escritores óptimos de aquellos escritores meramente buenos, pues los otros factores, tales como creatividad y la experiencia, juegan un papel. Se puede decir que los escritores buenos y los escritores óptimos han leído ambos lo «suficiente» para haber adquirido el código del lenguaje escrito.
En su libro " The power of reading", Krashen es más explícito. Según el autor la enseñanza directa en la escuela es importante para los estudiantes avanzados, sin embargo, un interés excesivo por la corrección en aquellos estudiantes que pretenden crear nuevos ideas tiene un efecto disociado. Los escritores experimentados saben esto y limitan la corrección a las fases finales luego de que las ideas ya se han vertido en una hoja de papel. Por ello entre mas madure el estudiante es posible esperar que desarrolle un conocimiento extensivo para la escritura.
"it might be most efficient to delay this kind of direct teaching until high school. Given extensive free reading, however, and a genuine invitation to join the literacy club, readers will acquire nearly all of the conventions of writing. With enough reading, good grammar, good spelling, and good style will be art of them, absorbed or acquired effortlessly". (Krashen,1993;72)

Las investigaciones señalan que nosotros aprendemos a escribir leyendo. Siendo precisos, se adquiere a escribir con estilo el idioma, leyendo. Por ejemplo, Applebee (1978), Elley y Mangubhai (1983), McNeil y Fader (1976), Alexander (1986) Kimberling et al. (1988), (citados por Krashen, 1993;72-73), expone que los niños que participan en programas libres de lectura escriben mejor, quienes leen más escriben mejor
Según el autor, existen otras razones parta suponer que el estilo en la escritura se origina en la lectura: Una es el argumento de la complejidad del lenguaje escrito. Las maneras mas «formales» del lenguaje escrito son demasiado complejas para ser aprendido de manera fácil o en clase. Y aunque los lectores pueden reconocer la escritura buena, los investigadores no han triunfado en explicar que es lo que produce un «buen estilo de escritura". Por ello como dice el autor:
" It is, therefore, sensible to suppose that writing style is not consciously learned, but is largely absorbed, or subconsciously acquired, from reading"(17 ). (Krashen, 1993; 73)

Se aprende a escribir leyendo aunque esta adquisición, no se realiza de manera consciente.
En resumen Krashen (1993), divide en dos postulados su hipótesis de la lectura como competencia escritural:
1- El estilo en la escritura se produce en la lectura no en la escritura.
2- La escritura nos ayuda a resolver problemas y nos hace más sabios.
Lectores tempranos, lectores tardíos y disponibilidad de libros
La crisis de la escritura en diversos países condujo a la implementación temprana de programas de «habilidades», los cuales han producido resultados buenos. Sin embargo, otra opción que no se considerada seriamente, es la intervención tardía sobre la lectura voluntaria de carácter masivo. Según Krashen y Mcquillan (1996), hay una fuerte evidencia que señala que la lectura voluntaria y libre es efectiva en el desarrollo de habilidades escriturales (literacy(18) ). Quienes leen más leen mejor, escribe mejor. deletrea mejor, tiene mayor competencia gramatical, y tiene un vocabulario más grandes. Además, la lectura libre es de hecho una adquisición positiva que posibilita otras empresas.
Los autores argumentan que la lectura libre es una intervención tardía efectiva. Además que no hay "periodo crítico" para aprender a leer, y que la lectura libre ha servido como una intervención tardía efectiva. No hay un período crítico en el aprendizaje para leer. Elley (1992, citado por krashen y Mcquillan,1996;1) en un estudio realizado en 32 países reporta: que en aquellos países donde se realiza la instrucción para leer a la edad siete han alcanzado resultados en los test iguales a aquellos que la inician a los cinco y seis años. Ahora bien, era significativo que todos estos países tenían el rango más alto en el desarrollo económico, una abastecimiento abundante de libros en la biblioteca de escuela y hogar y las librerías y las bibliotecas públicas eran disponibles localmente.
Esto sugiere que un comienzo tardío no es un problema cuando el niño tiene acceso para leer en el hogar y la escuela.
Aprender a leer tardíamente no impidió a muchos hombres y mujeres eminentes el éxito final. Por ejemplo, Schulman (1986, citado por Krashen ert al, 1996;2) informa que Einstein aprendio a leer a la edad 9, Rodin a la edad de 10, y Woodrow Wilson a la edad de 11 años. Sin embargo, no son los únicos casos las evidencias señalan que niños de 11 años que han aprendido a leer a esta edad, han llegado las fases finales de la alfabetización y han tenido éxito educativo. En estos casos las expectativas del niño y las actividades en el hogar han sido los responsables de éstos logros. Lo importante es que en estos casos no ha habido una instrucción formal y escolar sostenida.
Para sustentar estas aseveraciones, Krashen et al (1996;3) trae a referencia la experiencia tenida por Stein y Sheffer:
"Learning to read late did not prevent many eminent men and women from eventual These accounts are of home schooled children who learned to read well after they would have Stein (1994) states that her son, K.S., enjoyed being read to but showed no great interest in reading. Having read Smith’s Reading Without Nonsense, she was committed to allowing him to read only when he felt ready. K.S. wou íd identify «very basic stuff a label here and there» but neverread anything else. One day, Stein writes, tbcy were working on a science project together, and K.S. began toread the directions by himself: «He proceeded toread tome, almost effortlessly, a 1OO-word paragraph which contained words like ‘solenoid’, ‘nonmagnetic’, ‘rectangle’, ‘lengthwise’, ‘downward,’ and ‘workab!e». Sheffer (1987) cites the case of A.A., who was designated as having a Specific Learning Disability at the age of 8, halfway through the first grade. She was pulled out of school by her mother, who then «let her totally alone» and «never gave her an assignment or pressures» (p. 4). By the age of 10, she began to read books and comic books." (19)

En conclusión, como señalan los autores: primero, en la adquisición de la lectura no es necesario la instrucción formal. Segundo, los padres no deben presionar al niño para que lea. Tercero, el niño realiza un progreso rápido cuando inicia voluntariamente a leer.
NOTAS
(1) Con éste título de "Escritura y competencia" se hace referencia en especial al libro de Krashen sobre las investigaciones en escritura. Las traducción de las citas se hace de manera libre. (N.A.)
(2) Stephen Krashen considera que es el autor mas importante. La influencia de éste autor sobre Krashen es notoria según comenta el mismo autor.
(3) CASSANY emplea el término de código oral. En este caso se emplea el concepto inglés de writing language el cual hace referencia a un sistema de comunicación. El de oralidad de uso común en español es ambiguo en inglés. Así mismo el de código oral: en Inglés "code" tiene un significado amplio en el cual se abarca signos sean estos orales o escritos, de manera que code implicaría tanto oralidad o escritura y no establece la diferencia que realizamos en español..
(4) En el articulo "Voces e inscripciones de las oralidades y las escrituras", publicado en esta misma revista se hace un análisis amplio de las diferencias entre lenguaje oral y escrito, por ello en este caso sólo se puntualizan algunos aspectos para efectos del análisis.
(5) «.....sugiere, sin embargo, que el lenguaje escrito es diferente del hablado por la buena razón de que habló el idioma que se ha organizado por si sólo en mi cabeza, pero escribo el idioma que leo adecuadamente. El lenguaje escrito no es elaborado de manera inteligible, éste es traducido en el supuesto discurso del lector «.
(6) «La razón primera para la tenacidad de la escritura es su utilidad evidente como una herramienta para la comunicación, pues transmite información a través del tiempo y el espacio de manera cerrada o no abierta. Usted probablemente lee estas palabras muchos meses después que yo las escribí y probablemente a muchas millas de distancia. Sería menos conveniente para ambos, si usted ha tenido que escucharme hablar acerca de la escritura. La segunda utilidad general de la escritura, es proveer un registro mas o menos permanente, abarcado desde los cuentas en un libro mayor contable hasta historias y leyes cuyo propósito no es tanto comunicar sino institucional. Todas las culturas basan su existencia en algunos registros escritos y unos que otro artefacto. El tercer valor cultural de la escritura es como arte, los productos de la creatividad como las novelas, los poemas, juego. El hecho de que la escritura, adondequiera que pudo haber existido, parece haber participado en estos tres papeles generales, lo cual demuestra su utilidad en las culturas «.
(7) Hacemos referencia al programa de reconocimiento de voz para la escritura. Es posible con estas tecnologías, que hacia el futuro escribamos menos y hablemos mas.
(8) «Yo no coincido con la visión de que la escritura llegue a ser redundante en nuestra cultura porque las otras tecnologías toman su lugar. No puedo imaginar ninguna tecnología que haga que la escritura sea obsoleta, en el sentido de proveer una alternativa completa. Las tecnologías pueden algunas veces ofrecer sustitutos aceptables - ellas pueden ocasionalmente ser más eficientes que la escritura - pero ellas no son lo mismo; no pueden hacer lo que la escritura hace. Por lo tanto estas no pueden tomar totalmente el lugar de la escritura, ninguna fotografía puede tomar el lugar del arte del pintor (aunque la fotografía introduce nuevas posibilidades para el arte) Considero aquí las alternativas tecnológicas que se proponen usualmente para escribir, el teléfono o radio y televisión, y sus formas: la grabación y la película"
(9) ONG (1994) establece una diferencia entre oralidad primaria y secundaria. La primera hace referencia a una oralidad donde no existe ningún tipo de escritura. La segunda, es una oralidad mediada por medios escritos o influenciada por estos. Algunos autores para referirse a la multimedia hablan de una oralidad terciaria., es decir una oralidad en donde se combina la escritura con la imagen y la voz.
(10) «Aparte del hecho que el teléfono (o la radio) puede superar las barreras de espacio, el teléfono tiene las mismas desventajas que el lenguaje oral , su utilidad se restringe al momento si se profiere. Un teléfono no puede tomar el lugar de un libro o igualar una carta como medio de la comunicación a través del tiempo, como registro, o como una obra de arte «.
(11) «Las grabaciones pueden superar las limitaciones de tiempo de una manera restringida. Al tomarse un suceso del lenguaje oral fuera de un momento particular de tiempo, el momento se produce, para poder oírlo y repetirlo varias veces. Pero los escuchas de una grabación no tienen el poder para manipular el tiempo que los lectores tienen: ellos no pueden saltar, adelantarse, o ir al dorso y revisar, por lo menos con la facilidad de un lector. Usted no podría pedir que le repitieran una frase que yo he producido hace cinco minutos. Si escucha la charla, no podría usted tan fácilmente encontrar una frase sobre una cinta grabada o igualar un disco de computadora Seguramente no podría pedir que yo diga por adelantado la frase que pueda producir durante cinco de minutos, aunque pueda fácilmente mirar el remite en una carta o un libro. Ni podría seguir una de esas frases en su marcha propia, tan lentamente o tan rápidamente como pueda desear, como usted puede hacerlo con un texto escrito. Igualmente en formas que pueden parecer triviales - aún así no se escriba con frecuencia. «
(12) Spelling, deletrear. Se traduce por selección de palabras o letras.
(13) «Además, el autor y el secretario no pueden limitarse a simplemente a una interacción con un escrito, puede haber redacción cuando el autor revisa el texto, hace, cambia según los intereses del secretario, al deletreo o puntuación, o a la composición.. El secretario puede hacer una « copia limpia» que introduce cambios adicionales a él texto. En términos muy generales, sin embargo, es posible distinguir las responsabilidades pues el compositor y el transcriptor colaboran para producir un texto único de escritura en el sentido sustantivo «.
(14) «El problema es básicamente uno, la competencia para la atención. Si nosotros luchamos con las ideas, palabras particulares o construcciones, o si nuestros pensamientos vienen demasiado rápidos, entonces la calidad de nuestra caligrafía, la selección de palabras o la puntuación es probable que declinen. Si nos concentramos en la transcripción o en la claridad con que escribimos, la composición puede ser afectada"
(15) Krashen explica este proceso con la tesis del input comprensivo, el cual se explicara en otro artículo. Ver "The input hypothesis" del autor.
(16) «podría ser muy eficiente demorar este tipo de enseñanza directa hasta la escuela superior. Permitir la lectura libre, constituye, sin embargo, una invitación genuina para unirse al club de los alfabetos, en el cual los lectores adquirirán casi todas las convenciones de la escritura. El arte es que con la lectura, una buena gramática, deletreo y selección de palabras y el buen estilo será absorbido o adquirido sin esfuerzo
(17) "Es, por lo tanto, sensato suponer que el estilo de escritura no es aprendido conscientemente, pero se asimila en su mayor parte, o es subconscientemente adquirido, desde la lectura «.
(18) En inglés no existe la diferenciación entre lectura y escritura como en español cuando se emplea la palabra lectoescritura. Esto justifica el uso del término escritural para incluir ambos procesos.. Literacy en inglés es la capacidad de aprender a leer y escribir lo cual abarca un amplio espectro de códigos. Iliteracy es analfabetismo, incultura.
(19) «Aprender a leer tarde no impidió a muchas mujeres y hombres eminentes de finales Estos cuentas que algunos chicos educados en su hogar aprendieron a leer bien después que ellos. STEIN (1994) señala que su hijo, K.S., disfrutaba viéndola leer a pero no mostró gran interés en leer. Habiendo leído ambos "Smith’s Reading Without Nonsense", ella se comprometió a permitirle leer cuando él se sintiera preparado. K.S. había identificado lo básico aquí y allá. aquí y allí , pero nunca leía cualquier otra cosa. Un de día, escribe. Stein, habían trabajado sobre un proyecto de ciencia y K.S. comenzó a leer las direcciones por sí mismo: El procedió a leer casi sin esfuerzo, párrafos con unas 1OO entre las cuales estaban "solenoid", "non-magnetic", "rectanglé", "lengthwisé", "downwar", y "workable". SHEFFER (1987) cita el caso de A.A., quien a la edad de 8 tenía dificultades del aprendizaje que lo iban retrasando en el grado primero. El se retiró de la escuela por su madre, quien entonces «la dejó totalmente solo « y «nunca la dio un cometido o presiono» (p. 4). Cerca de los 10 años, ella hizo que leyera libros y libros cómicos. «
BIBLIOGRAFIA
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